Have Definitions of”Success” and “Failure” in U.S. Public Schools Changed?

Yes, they have.. I begin with a history of how policy elites defined “success” in school reform between the late 19th century and mid-20th century. In those years, classrooms, schools, and districts that practiced “efficiency” in expanding access for students to public schooling, following scientifically designed procedures in creating appropriate curricula for each level in age-graded schools, and using public funds parsimoniously and wisely were labeled “successes” (see here) Using scientific findings, ”educational engineers” in the early 20th century–historians called them “Administrative Progressives–sought the best ways for students to learn, teachers to teach, administrators to manage, and school boards to govern. These policymakers asked: how much does it cost to teach Latin? Can teachers get fifth grade students to learn more by worksheets done in class or by assigning homework? How can money be saved in heating the building during the winter? How can school boards divest…